AIDS Problem Essay -- Health, Diseases, AIDS, HIV

1. Introduction Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, also known as AIDS, is caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).HIV damages body’s immune system by destroying white blood cells which help us to destroy invaded pathogens. When HIV enters a white blood cell, it may remain dormant. However, once it is activated, it infects another cell to produce many new HIVS. After a certain period of time, the white blood cells are destroyed and leading to a loss of function of the immune system (Y.K. Ho,2004). People infected by HIV will turn out to have AIDS. Infected people are very weak to fight off other infectious disease and soon they will die. According to the data and statistics of WHO, global summary of the AIDS epidemic, 2009, the number of people living with HIV is around 33.3 million and AIDS death in 2009 is around 1.8 million. How about China situation? We couldn’t find much data about China situation. Therefore, we have to explore the situation from other sources. 2. Current Situation of AIDS in China According to the ministry of health of the people’s republic of China, the number of people living with AIDS is about 370 thousand and AIDS death is about 60 thousand. The figure is much different from the prediction of United Nations (UN), UN predicted that there will be 10 million people living with AIDS at the end of 2010. So, which figure is more reliable? I would suggest the UN one and the following is my reason. In the early 1990s, the Chinese leadership launched a blood drive and paid donors for their plasma (Alice Park,2004), this is so called the â€Å"plasma economy†. Especially in Henan province, many blood stations appeared in a short period of time. Farmers believed that they could earn a lot of money by d... ...n provide AIDS patients with counseling service which can help them to accept themselves and dispel prejudices. 6. Conclusion To conclude, the central pillars of public health can explain the AIDS problem in China. Public health is composed of multidisciplinary knowledge, prevention and social justice. We could not interpret AIDS problem by only exploring the scientific perspective. Economic and social perspective also play am important role. Moreover, prevention can be divided to 3 levels, primary prevention is crucial to the issue, which is also most effective way to get rid of the problem. Tertiary prevention is the last line of defense, reminding the Chinese government should do something before it is too late. Lastly, social justice should be upholding in Chinese, this is the most critical aspect to see whether the AIDS problem can alleviate or not.

Lewis and Clark Journal Entries

Lewis and Clark Journal Entries Monday 25th November 1805 Today was a really nice day. We had several Indians come up to us today. Later we loaded and set out to the river. We then continued to Shallow Bay. But the waves were too high. So we couldn't cross the river. For dinner we ate dried pounded fish. Then we continued up the North Side of the river near our camp. The evening was cloudy and windy today. That we could see from our last campsite at Mount Rainer bearing. The wind was blowing too hard for us to cross the river from our campsite, but we were determined to proceed up to where the river was narrow. We set out early in the morning. We were accompanied by 7 people. We stopped for a few miles, then a few Indians left us and crossed the river through the immense high waves. We then ate at Shallow Bay. We had dried pounded fish. When we were done eating we proceeded to the North Side of the Columbia, and then we started camping again a little after sunset. Near our campsite at some distance into the river. The evening was cloudy, but the winds were really nice and we can also see Mt. Hillmans from the mouth of the river. May 25, 1804 We decided to set out early. At about two miles passed a willow tree. By the bend in the creek called Wood River. At three miles passed the mouth of another creek called La Que Ver this same course continued for a while. About two and a half miles further on one side we passed a creek called La Freneau at this point we were at least four miles away from a small French Village called La Charatt there were only five families in this village. It has been raining all night. The river rose several inches. I hope we find some islands tomorrow. We plan on passing Wood River again. We will go about two miles passed La Que Ver. At five miles passed La Free Au. At eight miles we set up camp at the mouth of a creek called Charrette above a small French Village that only has seven houses. We will settle there to hunt and trade with the Indians. While we were are here we will meet with Louis immediately. We will get situated at Sioux and he will give us some good of information and letters.

Ob Robinssolutionchap2

Chapter 2 Foundations of Individual Behavior MULTIPLE CHOICE Ability 1. Which of the following statements is true about the term â€Å"ability†, as it is used in the field of organizational behavior? a. It refers to an individual’s willingness to perform various tasks. b. It is a current assessment of what an individual can do. c. It refers exclusively to intellectual skills. d. It refers exclusively to physical skills. e. It is a prediction of future aptitude based on current attitudes. (b; Moderate; Ability; p. 45) 2. Which one of the following words is the best synonym for â€Å"ability†, as the term is used in organizational behavior? . motivation b. capacity c. experience d. intellect e. wisdom (b; Challenging; Ability; p. 45) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 3. Which of the following is not a dimension of intellectual ability? a. number aptitude b. perceptual speed c. spatial visualization d. dynamic flexibility e. social aptitude (d; Moderate; Intellectual Ability ; p. 45) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 4. What is a factor of intelligence that suggests that it makes sense to talk about overall intelligence? a. general mental ability b. intelligent quotient c. ability d. cultural intelligence e. perceptual speed (a; Moderate; General Mental Ability; p. 6) 5. Which of the following is not one of the nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks? a. stamina b. dynamic flexibility c. speed d. body coordination e. trunk strength (c; Moderate; Nine Basic Physical Abilities; p. 47) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Biographical Characteristics 6. Which of the following is not a biographical characteristic? a. political affiliation b. age c. sex d. tenure e. race (a; Easy; Biographical Characteristics; p. 48) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 7. What will be the largest demographic change in the U. S. workforce in the next decade? a. ncreasing ethnic diversity b. a fall in married workers c. increasing age of workers d. decreasing tenure of workers e. m ore women in the workforce than men (c; Moderate; Age; p. 48) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 8. Research shows that which of the following is likely to decrease as a worker grows older? a. productivity b. likelihood of quitting c. absenteeism d. vacation days taken e. work ethic (b; Moderate; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 9. Which of the following statements is true? a. Older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence than younger workers. b.Older employees have lower rates of unavoidable absence than younger workers. c. Older employees are more likely to quit their job than younger workers. d. Older employees are perceived to be more flexible than younger workers. e. Older employees generally have lower productivity than younger workers. (a; Moderate, Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 10. Which of the following is true concerning the relationship between age and job satisfaction? a. Most studies have found a negative association between age and satisfaction. b. Some studies have found a U-shaped relationship between age and satisfaction. . Satisfaction decreases among professionals as they age. d. Satisfaction increases among nonprofessionals during middle age. e. Satisfaction decreases among nonprofessionals after middle age. (b; Moderate; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 11. Research does not support which of the following statements about gender in the workplace? a. Women are more willing to conform to authority than men. b. Men are more aggressive than women. c. Women are more productive at work than men. d. Men have higher expectations of success. e. Women have lower turnover rates than men. c; Moderate; Gender; p. 50) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 12. Research supports which of the following statements about men and women in the workplace? a. Men are more productive. b. Women are more productive. c. Men are the most receptive to socialization. d. Women are more likely to resign. e. Wome n have more absences. (e; Moderate; Gender; p. 50) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 13. Which of the following is the most likely explanation for the higher absentee rate of women in the workplace? a. Women tend to have more illnesses that keep them from work than do men. . Traditionally, women have had the responsibility of caring for home and family. c. Women tend to be less satisfied with their jobs than men. d. Women generally have jobs for which a temporary replacement can be hired. e. Women tend to work in jobs that have less flexible schedules than men do. (b; Moderate; Gender; p. 50) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 14. Which of the following is a major problem in the use of ability tests for selection and promotion of personnel? a. The tests are not reliable. b. The tests fail to take into account the personality of the individual. c.Some individuals with high intelligence are poor test takers. d. Women enjoy an unfair advantage on these tests. e. The tests may have an adverse impact on different racial and ethnic groups. (e; Moderate; Race; p. 51) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 15. Which of the following statements concerning tenure is not true? a. Recent evidence demonstrates a positive relationship between seniority and job productivity. b. Tenure does not appear to be a good predictor of employee productivity. c. Tenure is a potent variable in explaining turnover. d. Tenure and satisfaction are positively related. . Tenure and organizational investment are negatively related. (b; Moderate; Tenure; p. 52) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 16. Studies indicate that which of the following tends to decrease with increased tenure? a. job satisfaction b. productivity c. absenteeism d. raises and promotion e. efficiency (c; Moderate; Tenure; p. 52) 17. Perhaps the greatest religious issue revolves around what? a. Christianity b. Judaism c. Catholicism d. Buddhism e. Islam (e; Moderate; Religion; p. 53) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 18. What F ortune 500 company offers domestic partner benefits for gay couples? . Wal-Mart b. Alltel c. Rubbermaid d. Nestle e. Heintz (a; Moderate; Sexual Orientation; p. 53) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} Learning 19. Which of the following indicates that learning has taken place? a. the ability to perform well on exams b. a change in motivation c. a change in behavior d. a high I. Q. score e. an increase in experience (c; Easy; Learning; p. 54) 20. Learning has not taken place in which of the following cases? a. A farm worker makes sure that she always wears a hat after she was badly sunburned. b. A salesman watches a training video and then uses some f the techniques in that video. c. An athlete trains rigorously, until he can run a mile in less than 4 minutes. d. A warehouseman avoids working by staying in areas of the warehouse where he has observed that the foreman does not enter. e. A manager only completes an important project by working through the night. (e; Moderate; Learning ; p. 54) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 21. All of the following are true about learning except that it _____. a. involves change b. can have a very short duration c. requires a change in behavior d. requires some form of experience e. affects aptitude b; Moderate; Learning; p. 54) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 22. A cashier starts greeting her customers with a simple â€Å"Hello† rather than following the company policy of greeting them with the standard greeting â€Å"Thank you for shopping with us†, since she find saying the latter slightly embarrassing. In this case, what is the experience that has led to learning? a. the feeling of embarrassment when she uses the standard company greeting b. the direction of the company to use the standard greeting c. the decision not to use the company greeting d. her use of the informal greeting of â€Å"Hello† . the decision of the company to adopt the standard greeting (a; Moderate; Learning; p. 54) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 23. Ex periments performed by Ivan Pavlov led to what theory? a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. social learning d. method reproduction e. behavior shaping (a; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) 24. What role did the meat play in Pavlov’s experiment with dogs? a. an unconditioned response b. a conditioned stimulus c. a conditioned response d. a reconditioned stimulus e. an unconditioned stimulus (e; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 5) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 25. Classical conditioning would view which of the following as most likely to be a conditioned response? a. wincing when you stub your toe b. driving on the right side of the road c. flinching when startled by a loud noise d. looking for shelter when the sky turns gray e. mouth watering when you eat delicious food (d; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 26. In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell was a/an _____. a. unconditioned stimulus b. unconditioned response c. con ditioned stimulus d. conditioned response e. none of the above c; Easy; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 27. Which of the following is not true of classical conditioning? a. Classical conditioning is passive. b. Classical conditioning can explain simple reflexive behaviors. c. Learning a conditioned response involves building an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. d. A neutral stimulus takes on the properties of a conditioned stimulus. e. Classical conditioning is different in many respects from operant conditioning. (d; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 28.When Joe gets stressed he often drinks chamomile tea. This calms him since he associates chamomile tea drinking with happy visits with his grandmother in his childhood. The calm feeling brought on by the tea is an example of which of the following? a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. sensory learning d. social learning e. shaping (a; Easy; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 29. Why does classical conditioning theory fail to adequately describe behavior in the workplace? a. Most behavior of individuals in the workplace is reflexive rather than voluntary. b.Most behavior of individuals in the workplace is emitted rather than elicited. c. Most behavior of individuals in the workplace is complex. d. It is very difficult to determine exactly which conditioned stimulus elicits which response in the workplace. e. Classical conditioning works well describing animal behavior but not human behavior. (b; Challenging; Classical Conditioning; p. 56) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 30. Operant conditioning argues that _____. a. behavior is reflexive b. behavior is unlearned c. behavior is a function of its consequences d. the tendency to repeat a behavior is very strong e. he tendency to repeat a behavior is instinctual (c; Moderate; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) 31. Which of the following researcher s thought that reinforcement was the central factor involved in behavioral change? a. Pavlov b. Fayol c. Skinner d. Deming e. Surber (c; Moderate; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) 32. Stella has been late to work often in the past. Stella’s manager tries to change Stella’s behavior by praising her whenever she is on time. However, Stella realizes that this is what he is doing and resents his attempts to manipulate her behavior. This is an example of what problem with behaviorism and OB Mod? . Behaviorism and OB Mod assume that people’s thoughts and feelings in response to their environment are irrelevant. b. Behaviorism and OB Mod put undue emphasis on cognitive processes. c. Behaviorism and OB Mod only have an effect on human subjects when those subjects are unaware that these techniques are being used. d. The best reinforcement to use and the schedule on which it should be used varies widely between individual subjects. e. Behaviorism and OB Mod are based upon sim ple models of stimulus and response that may not hold true in a complex, real world environment. a; Challenging; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 33. Your boss does not follow through on her promise to pay you double for overtime hours worked. When asked again to work overtime, you decline. This is an application of _____ conditioning. a. classical b. operant c. sensory d. association e. disappointment-weighted (b; Challenging; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 34. According to operant conditioning, when a behavior is not reinforced, what happens to the probability of that behavior occurring again? a. It increases. b. It declines. c. It remains unchanged. . It becomes zero. e. It may increase or decrease based on other factors. (b; Easy; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 35. What do we call the view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience? a. situational learning theory b. classical learning c. soc ial learning theory d. hands-on learning experience e. the Pavlov principle (c; Easy; Social Learning; p. 57) 36. Social learning theory is an extension of _____. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. shaping d. Pavlovian theory e. continuous reinforcement principles (b; Moderate; Social Learning; p. 7) 37. Isadora observes that when her brother Mikey crosses the street without looking he is punished by their parents. Based on this, she is careful to look before she crosses the street. Isadora has learned through what principle? a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. shaping d. extinction e. social learning theory (e; Challenging; Social Learning; p. 57) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 38. Social learning theory would best describe the learning in what situation? a. An employee works through lunch several days in a row after being told by her boss that she will receive extra pay. b.A man learns how to perform yoga by watching a videotape of a yoga teacher. c. A child always addresses his grandmother politely after he is given candy as a reward for his good manners. d. A man stops wearing brightly colored shirts to work after being teased for doing so by his co-workers. e. A postal worker’s pulse rate rises whenever she approaches a house where she has been bitten by a dog before. (b; Challenging; Social Learning; p. 57) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 39. Four processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will have on an individual. Which of the following is not one of those processes? . attentional processes b. retention processes c. motor reproduction processes d. reinforcement processes e. consequential processes (e; Moderate; Social Learning; pp. 57-58) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 40. Which of the following processes deals with how well an individual remembers a model’s action after it is no longer readily available? a. attitudinal b. retention c. motor reproduction d. reinforcement e. attention (b; Easy; Socia l Learning; p. 57) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 41. What do we call the practice of reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior? a. modeling b. haping c. classical conditioning d. social learning e. aping (b; Moderate; Shaping; p. 58) 42. You want to increase the productivity of an employee. Your goal is to have him produce 10 units per day. On the first day he produces 5 units and you give him a reward. On the second day he produces 5 units and you don’t give him a reward. On the third day he produces 6 units and you give him a reward. Which method of behavioral change are you using? a. modeling b. shaping c. classical conditioning d. social learning e. ego impairment (b; Challenging; Shaping; p. 58) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 43.Using shaping, which of the following is not a method that can be used to change behavior? a. negative reinforcement b. punishment c. counseling d. positive reinforcement e. extinction (c; Easy; Shaping; pp. 58-59) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 44. Which of the following can be used in shaping behavior? a. positive reinforcement b. diminishment c. reaction d. manipulation e. unionization (a; Easy; Shaping; p. 58) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 45. What is it called when a desired response is followed by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant? a. negative reinforcement b. positive reinforcement c. anipulation d. elimination e. psychic withdrawal (a; Moderate; Negative Reinforcement; p. 58) 46. Suspending an employee for dishonest behavior is an example of which method of shaping behavior? a. extinction b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. poor planning e. reaction (c; Moderate; Punishment; p. 59) 47. Which of the following is an example of the use of extinction in shaping behavior? a. A teacher does not respond to any student who speaks before being called upon. b. A workplace institutes a zero-tolerance policy for drug and alcohol use. c. A manager docks the pay of all workers who arrive late. . A ca t owner sprays his cat with water every time it tries to sit on the couch. e. A soccer coach rewards his players with praise and small rewards if they prevent the other team from scoring. (a; Moderate; Extinction; p. 59) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 48. Which of the following statements about positive and negative reinforcement is not true? a. They both result in learning. b. They both strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. c. They tend to weaken behavior and decrease its subsequent frequency. d. They are effective shaping tools. e. They are often used in learning. c; Challenging; Methods of Shaping Behavior; p. 59) 49. An employee is frequently late for work. Every time he is not tardy the manager compliments him for being on time. What form of reinforcement is the manager using? a. continuous schedule b. negative c. intermittent schedule d. repetitious e. repetitious negative (a; Moderate; Continuous Reinforcement; p. 59) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 50. The cor porate audit staff makes a series of randomly timed, unannounced visits to a company office. On each visit they check the records to see that they are up to date and correct. These visits are an example of which of the ollowing? a. positive reinforcement b. variable-interval reinforcement schedule c. continuous reinforcement schedule d. fixed reinforcement schedule e. static response method (b; Moderate; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 51. In which reinforcement schedule is a reward provided after a given number of responses? a. variable-ratio b. fixed-ratio c. variable-interval d. fixed-interval e. viable (b; Moderate; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) 52. According to research, which of the following is a schedule of reinforcement that promotes the greatest resistance to extinction? a. continuous b. ixed interval c. variable interval d. fixed ratio e. negative (c; Moderate; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) 53. In general, _____ reinforcement schedule s tend to lead to higher performance than _____ reinforcement schedules. a. variable; fixed b. fixed; intermittent c. fixed; variable d. variable; ratio e. fixed; static (a; Moderate; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 54. The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting is referred to as _____. a. classical conditioning b. self-management c. reengineering d. OB Mod e. social modeling (d; Moderate; OB Mod; p. 2) 55. Which of the following is one of the steps of the problem-solving model followed by the typical OB Mod program? a. identifying critical behaviors b. reinforcing behavior c. developing horizontally arrayed data d. developing vertically arrayed data e. identifying member barriers (a; Moderate; OB Mod Steps; p. 62) 56. A manager wishes to use OB Mod in order to increase the friendliness of his staff towards customers. The manager starts by determining exactly what behaviors his sales staff needs to use in order to increas e their friendliness towards customers. What is the next step that the manager should take? . determine why employees are not friendly towards customers b. develop a strategy for increasing the friendliness of employees towards customers c. reward employees who are friendly towards customers d. record how often employees are friendly to customers at the present time e. establish what is needed to motivate employee friendliness towards customers (d; Moderate; OB Mod Steps; p. 62) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Summary and Implications for Managers 57. Who said â€Å"Give me a child at birth and I can make him into anything you want†? a. B. F. Skinner b. Ivan Pavlov c. Sigmund Freud d.James Emery e. Ben Franklin (a; Moderate; Shaping Behavior; p. 66) TRUE/FALSE Ability 58. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability that make them relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities. (True; Easy; Ability; p. 45) 59. Ability is the assessme nt of what one will do. (False; Easy; Ability; p. 45) 60. An individual’s overall abilities are essentially made up of three sets of factors: thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. (False; Moderate; Ability; p. 45) 61. A high I. Q. is a good prerequisite for all jobs. (False; Easy; Intelligent Quotient; p. 45) 62.It is illegal in the U. S. for employers to use I. Q. tests for employment selection. (False; Moderate; Intelligent Quotient; p. 45) 63. Stamina, dexterity, and strength are dimensions of physical ability. (True; Easy; Nine Basic Physical Abilities; p. 47) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 64. Individuals who have a high score on one dimension of physical ability will usually score high on all other dimensions. (False; Moderate; Physical Abilities; p. 47) Biographical Characteristics 65. Biographical data is easier to acquire than information on employee motivation levels. (True; Easy; Biographical Characteristics; p. 48) 66.Collecting biographical data is typically a very difficult task in organizations. (False; Easy; Biographical Characteristics; p. 48) 67. Personal characteristics that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records (such as age, sex, and marital status) are called biographical characteristics. (True; Easy; Biographical Characteristics; p. 48) 68. A person’s age is an example of a biographical characteristic. (True; Easy; Biographical Characteristics; p. 48) 69. The relationship between age and job performance is likely to be an issue of increasing importance during the next decade. (True; Moderate; Age; p. 8) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 70. Recent American legislation makes it easier for a company to enforce mandatory retirement. (False; Moderate; Age; p. 48) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 71. Mandatory retirement has become an increasingly rare phenomenon in organizations. (True; Moderate; Age; p. 48) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 72. Age and turnover rates are directly related. (True; Moder ate; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 73. Age and avoidable absences are negatively related. (True; Moderate; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 74. Worker’s productivity tends to decline with age. False; Moderate; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 75. Age and job satisfaction are related for professional workers. (True; Moderate; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 76. In general, woman and men desire the same work schedules. (False; Moderate; Gender; p. 50) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 77. There is no significant difference between the absenteeism rates of men and women. (False; Easy; Gender; p. 50) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 78. In employment settings, individuals tend to favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations, promotion decisions, and pay raises. True; Easy; Race; p. 51) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 79. Mental ability tests used for selection, promotion, training, an d similar personnel decisions may have a negative impact on racial and ethnic groups. (True; Challenging; Race; p. 51) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 80. People who have been on a job longer are more productive than those with less seniority. (True; Moderate; Tenure; p. 52) 81. Tenure is negatively related to absenteeism. (True; Moderate; Tenure; p. 52) 82. Tenure is negatively related to turnover. (True; Moderate; Tenure; p. 52) 83.Tenure and satisfaction are negatively related. (False; Moderate; Tenure; p. 52) Learning 84. Learning has occurred when there is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. (True; Easy; Learning; p. 54) 85. One can easily observe others learning. (False; Easy; Learning; p. 54) 86. Classical conditioning grew out of the work of B. F. Skinner. (False; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) 87. In Ivan Pavlov’s study, dogs salivated in response to a ringing bell. (True; Easy; Classical Conditioning; p. 55 ) 88. The meat in Pavlov’s experiment was an unconditioned stimulus. True; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) 89. Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. (True; Challenging; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) 90. To explain why Christmas carols often bring back pleasant memories of childhood, you would use operant conditioning. (False; Challenging; Classical Conditioning; p. 55) 91. Classical conditioning is passive. (True; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 56) 92. Classical conditioning can explain simple reflexive behaviors. (True; Moderate; Classical Conditioning; p. 6) 93. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior. (True; Moderate; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) 94. What Pavlov did for operant conditioning, Skinner did for classical conditioning. (False; Challenging; Learning Theories; p. 56) 95. Rewards are most effective if they are delayed following the desired response. (False; Moderate; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) 96. Your supervisor has explained that he will reward those who take extra effort to see that their jobs are done well. This tactic follows from research into operant conditioning. True; Easy; Operant Conditioning; p. 56) 97. Learning through both observation and direct experience is called operant conditioning. (False; Easy; Social Learning; p. 57) 98. Older workers are not as capable of learning as younger employees. (False; Moderate; Age and Learning; p. 58) 99. Trainability is a measure of a person’s willingness to learn. (False; Moderate; Trainability; p. 58) 100. Reduced motivation has been found to significantly influence learning and training outcomes. (True; Moderate; Learning; p. 58) 101. Shaping occurs when we mold individuals by using intensive training to change their behavior quickly. False; Easy; Shaping; p. 58) 102. One method of shaping behavior is called positi ve reinforcement and occurs when a desired response is followed with something pleasant. (True; Moderate; Positive Reinforcement; p. 58) 103. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called punishment. (False; Moderate; Extinction; p. 59) 104. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. (True; Easy; Methods of Shaping Behavior; p. 59) 105. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency. (True; Moderate; Methods of Shaping Behavior; p. 59) 06. A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each time it is demonstrated. (True; Easy; Continuous Reinforcement; p. 59) 107. A piece-rate incentive plan is an example of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement. (False; Moderate; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) 108. Salespeople on commission are examples of individuals on a variable-ratio schedule. (True; Moderate; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) 109. In the typical OB Mod progr am, everything an employee does on his or her job is equally important in terms of performance outcomes. (False; Moderate; OB Mod; p. 62) 110.The first step in OB Mod is to identify critical behaviors impacting the employee’s performance. (True; Moderate; OB Mod Steps; p. 62) 111. Our knowledge about learning suggests that punishment is a more effective tool in OB mod than reinforcement. (False; Moderate; OB Mod and Reinforcement Theory; p. 63) SCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONS Application of Biographical Characteristics You work in the air filter manufacturing business. Your division is made up of three other people with very different biographical characteristics. Gina is 27 years old, single and female. She has been with the company only six months.Jonathan is 63 years old and a widower who has been with the company for thirty years. Sally is a single mother with four children who has been with the company for five years. 112. Based on the information given, which employee would be least likely to quit his or her job? a. all these employees would have about the same likelihood of quitting b. Gina c. Jonathan d. Sally e. Gina and Sally (c; Moderate; Age; p. 48) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 113. Based on the information given, which employee would you expect to have the lowest rate of avoidable absence? a. ll these employees would have about the same rate of avoidable absence b. Sally c. Gina d. Jonathan e. Gina and Sally would probably have equally low rates (d; Moderate; Age; p. 48) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 114. Based on the information given, which employee would you expect to most desire the option to telecommute or arrange a more flexible work schedule? a. all these employees would have the same desire for these options b. Jonathan c. Sally d. Gina e. Gina and Sally (c; Moderate; Gender; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} {AACSB: Analytic Skills}Application of Learning Theoryâ⠂¬â€Shaping Behavior You are the first-line supervisor for a group of employees who make cheese slicers. Their job is not terribly interesting or challenging and you have noticed that they are frequently tardy returning from their breaks. You have studied the concept of shaping behavior and decide that you will try to apply it to this situation. 115. You praise Allen for returning on time from break. This is an example of _____. a. negative reinforcement b. positive reinforcement c. extinction d. social learning e. modeling (b; Moderate; Positive Reinforcement; p. 8) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 116. You want Allison to take an accounting course so that she can help with the bookkeeping. Allison does not want to go to night school to take the course and has been resisting. You know that her least favorite duty is preparing payroll. You tell her that she will be given extra help with preparing payroll whenever she takes an accounting class. This is an example of _____. a. positive reinf orcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction e. classical conditioning (b; Challenging; Negative Reinforcement; p. 58) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 117.Sam is late coming back to work and you dock his pay. This is an example of _____. a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction e. classical conditioning (c; Moderate; Punishment; p. 59) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Different Schedules of Reinforcement You have decided to experiment with the relationship between reinforcement schedules and maintaining desired employee behavior. You are interested in observing the differences between continuous and intermittent reinforcement and between the various types of intermittent reinforcement schedules. 118.Veronica is paid $10. 00 per dozen units that she produces. This is an example of _____ reinforcement. a. intermittent, fixed-interval b. continuous c. intermittent, variable-interval d. negative e. none of the above (a; Challengin g; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 119. Gerald is a staff accountant who is visited several times a year by the corporate auditor. These visits are unannounced. This is an example of _____reinforcement. a. intermittent, fixed-interval b. continuous c. intermittent, variable-interval d. negative e. reactive (c; Challenging; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 0) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 120. John’s attendance has historically been unreliable and you have decided to use reinforcement and compliment him when his attendance record shows improvement. The most effective schedule of reinforcement will probably be _____. a. variable-interval intermittent b. fixed-interval intermittent c. continuous d. punishment-based e. shaped (a; Challenging; Intermittent Reinforcement; p. 60) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 121. You know that the reinforcement schedule that your firm chooses for compensation will have an impact on the behavior of employees.Which of the following is not likely based on available research? a. Continuous reinforcement schedules will lead to early satiation. b. Continuous reinforcement schedules are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low-frequency responses. c. Variable schedules do not clearly link performance and rewards. d. Fixed schedules will lead to higher performance than variable schedules. e. Variable schedules will be highly effective. (d; Challenging; Reinforcement Schedules and Behavior; p. 60) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Behavior Modification Your manager has read about the now-classic study of Emery’s use of OB Mod.He was impressed by the savings to the company of $2 million over a three-year period. He has announced that he is implementing an OB Mod program at your organization. 122. You can expect to see the application of which of the following in the work setting? a. reinforcement concepts to individuals b. open book management c. additional stock option plans d. analysis of biographi cal characteristics e. higher health care benefits (a; Easy; OB Mod; p. 62) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 123. What is the first step that your manager is likely to take? a. identify behavioral consequences b. identify critical behaviors c. evaluate performance improvement . develop baseline data e. none of the above (b; Challenging; OB Mod Steps; p. 62) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 124. In the first step of the OB Mod program, your manager will most likely be attempting to identify those five to ten percent of behaviors that may account for up to _____ percent of each employee’s performance. a. 20-25 b. 40-50 c. 60-70 d. 70-80 e. 100 (d; Challenging; OB Mod Steps; p. 62) SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 125. Why is the relationship between age and job performance likely to be an issue of increasing importance during the next decade? First, there is a widespread belief that job performance declines with increasing age.Regardless of whether it’s true or not, many people believe it and act on it. Second is the reality that the workforce is aging. Workers age 55 and older are currently the fastest-growing sector of the labor force. The third reason is that U. S. legislation, for all intents and purposes, outlaws mandatory retirement. (Easy; Age; p. 49) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 126. Has research indicated the existence of gender differences in job productivity? Explain. There is little evidence indicating that an employee’s gender affects his or her job productivity.In this area of study the similarities between male and female workers seems to far outweigh the very minor differences (for example, in the area of absenteeism) that have been found in some studies. (Easy; Gender; p. 50) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 127. What is learning? Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. (Easy; Learning; p. 54) 128. How can managers shape employee behavior? Managers can shape employee behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired response.Managers can mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps. Reinforcement increases as responses more closely approximate the desired behavior. Managers may use positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction to promote this gradual shaping of employee behavior. (Easy; Shaping; p. 58) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 129. Give an example of a fixed-ratio schedule for paying employees and an example of a variable-ratio schedule for payment. In a fixed-ratio schedule, rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.For example, a worker is rewarded with a piece rate system paying $10 for every 12 widgets produced. Each dozen earns the worker another $10. A variable-ratio schedule provides variable reward relative to the behavior of the individual. For example, a car sa lesman on commission is on a variable-ratio schedule. Each potential customer does not necessarily result in a sale and thus a commission. (Easy; Intermittent Reinforcement; pp. 59-60) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} MEDIUM LENGTH DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 130. What is ability? What are the two sets of factors comprising a person’s ability level?Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a given job. It is a current assessment of what one can do. An individual’s overall abilities are essentially made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical abilities. 1) Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities. 2) Physical abilities are important for successfully performing jobs that are more standardized which require manual labor. (Easy; Ability; p. 45-47) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 131. What is the relationship between age and the organizational issues of productivity, turnover and satisfaction?This is a somewhat comp lex set of relationships. The older you get, the less likely you are to quit your job. Older workers are less likely to resign than are younger workers because their long tenure tends to provide them with higher wage rates, longer paid vacations, and more attractive pension benefits. In general, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence than do younger employees. However, they also have higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to the poorer heath associated with aging and the longer recovery that older workers need when injured.The demands of most jobs, even those with heavy manual labor requirements, are not extreme enough for any declines in physical skills due to age to have an impact on productivity; or if there is some decay due to age, it is offset by gains due to experience. The evidence is mixed when examining the relationship between age and job satisfaction, however. Most studies indicate a positive association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age 60. Other studies, however, have found a U-shaped relationship.Satisfaction tends to continually increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years. (Moderate; Age; p. 48) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 132. Identify and briefly describe the five steps of a typical OB Mod program. The typical OB Mod program follows a five-step problem-solving model: identifying critical behaviors, developing baseline data, identifying behavioral consequences, developing and implementing an intervention strategy, and evaluating performance improvement. ) The first step is to identify the critical behaviors that make a significant impact on the employee’s job performance. 2) The second step requires the manager to develop some baseline performance data. This is obtained by determining the number of times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions. 3) The third step is to perform a functional analysis to identify the behavioral contingencies or consequences of performance. This tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it. ) In the fourth step, the manager develops and implements an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors and weaken undesirable behaviors. 5) The final step is to evaluate performance improvement. (Moderate; OB Mod Steps; p. 62) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} COMPREHENSIVE ESSAYS 133. How do we learn? Identify and discuss the theories to explain the process by which we acquire patterns of behavior. Be sure to specifically identify the key elements of each of these theories by name. Classical conditioning was discovered by Pavlov.Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus in order to invoke the performance of a conditioned response, which was formerly an unconditioned response. When the stimuli, one compelling and the other one neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus and leads to the performance of a conditioned response (which is the same response as the original unconditioned response).Skinner, who discovered operant conditioning, argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behavior and can be manipulated through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, shaping, and extinction.Social learning is the theory that we can learn through both observation and direct expe rience. Social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning; it assumes that behavior is a function of consequences – it also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception to learning. People respond to how they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves. (Challenging; Learning Theories; pp. 54 to 57) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 34. Discuss the four processes management should include when creating employee training programs. The likelihood that training programs will be successful can be improved with the inclusion of attentional, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement processes. People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers th e model’s action after the model is no longer readily available. After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. This motor reproduction process demonstrates that the individuals can perform the modeled activities. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. (Moderate; Social Learning; pp. 57-58) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

Free Essays on The Tyger

are so distinguishable from the non-rhyming wor... Free Essays on The Tyger Free Essays on The Tyger â€Å"The Tyger†, by William Blake, is a compelling piece of literature which is very ambiguous and vague. Many different interpreters have very dissimilar opinions not only of the poem itself, but of its deeper meaning. Algernon Charles Swinburne asks, â€Å"Could God bring down his heart to the making of a thing so deadly and strong? Or could any lesser daemonic force of nature take to itself wings and fly high enough to assume power equal to such a creation?† In the poem itself, Blake asks the tiger, â€Å"Did he who made the Lamb make thee?† The central question seems to be whether the tiger, a fearful and wrathful creature, was created by the grace of God or the iniquity of Satan. Of course the tiger was created by God, for it was He who created Heaven and Earth. Therefore, as abominable as the tiger may be, it inevitably has to be a production of God. Apparently over time the tiger has been transformed into this malicious creature. Is it not true t hat people are a product of their environment? The same case applies to the tiger. It has been given the circumstances in which it must take on the role of savage beast to maintain its survival in the environment. The lamb, on the other hand, has been presented a lifestyle in which it must really do nothing to perpetuate its species. Therefore, the tiger appears sinful, whereas the lamb appears passive and innocent. However, both creatures are actually equal. The only difference is the conditions in which they are in as a species. God did not create an abominate creature; he created a creature which developed its own traits. Being a romantic poem, â€Å"The Tyger† has a much deeper meaning than just who created the tiger. Blake is trying to enlighten people as to the concept of transformation. Even though these two creatures were essentially created the same, they have transformed into two entirely opposite entities. One has transformed into good, and one evil. Pe ople ca... Free Essays on The Tyger â€Å"The Tyger† Does god create both gentle and fearful creatures? If he does what right does he have? Both of these rhetorical questions are asked by William Blake in his poem â€Å"The Tyger.† The poem takes the reader on a journey of faith, questioning god and his nature. The poem completes a cycle of questioning the creator of the tyger, discussing how it could have been created, and then returns to questioning the creator again. Both questions about the tyger’s creator are left unanswered. William Blake uses rhythm, rhyme, and poetic devices to create a unique effect and to parallel his theme in his work â€Å"The Tyger.† William Blake’s choice of rhythm is important to his poem â€Å"The Tyger† because it parallels the theme of the poem, that the tyger may have been made by god or another harsher creator. Most of the poem is written in trochaic tetrameter as can be seen in line three, when Blake says, â€Å"What immortal hand or eye.† This rhythm is very harsh sounding, exemplifying the very nature of the tyger. Some of the lines in the poem were written in iambic tetrameter, such as in line ten, when Blake says, â€Å"Could twist the sinews of thy heart? .† Iambic tetrameter has a much softer sounding beat than does trochaic tetrameter. This implies the gentle nature of god, and if he could create such a beast. The last word of each quatrain is written in a spondee. This helps to create a unique symmetry and to parallel the â€Å"fearful symmetry† of a tyger. William Blake’s use of rhyme greatly affects his work â€Å"The Tyger.† The entire poem is written in couplets. Couplets contain two lines, paralleling the dichotomy of the poem, that everything has two sides or parts. The rhyme scheme is AA BB CC etc. Because the rhyming words are so distinguishable from the non-rhyming wor...

High Crimes and Misdemeanors in Impeachment

High Crimes and Misdemeanors in Impeachment â€Å"High Crimes and Misdemeanors† is the rather ambiguous phrase most often cited as grounds for the impeachment of U.S. federal government officials, including the President of the United States. What are High Crimes and Misdemeanors? Background Article II, Section 4 of the U.S. Constitution provides that, â€Å"The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.† The Constitution also provides the steps of the impeachment process leading to the possible removal from office of the president, vice president, federal judges, and other federal officials. Briefly, the impeachment process is initiated in the House of Representatives and follows these steps: The House Judiciary Committee considers evidence, holds hearings, and if necessary, prepares articles of impeachment – the actual charges against the official.If a majority of the Judiciary Committee votes to approve the articles of impeachment, the full House debates and votes on them.If a simple majority of the House votes to impeach the official on any or all of the articles of impeachment, then the official must then stand trial in the Senate.If a two-thirds supermajority of the Senate votes to convict the official, the official is immediately removed from office. In addition, the Senate may also vote to forbid the official from holding any federal office in the future. While Congress has no power to impose criminal penalties, such as prison or fines, impeached and convicted officials may subsequently be tried and punished in the courts if they have committed criminal acts. The specific grounds for impeachment set by the Constitution are, â€Å"treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors.† In order to be impeached and removed from office, the House and Senate must find that the official had committed at least one of these acts. What are Treason and Bribery? The crime of treason is clearly defined by the Constitution in Article 3, Section 3, Clause 1: Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.†The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. In these two paragraphs, the Constitution empowers the United States Congress to specifically create the crime of treason. As a result, treason is prohibited by legislation passed by Congress as codified in the United States Code at 18 U.S.C.  § 2381, which states: Whoever, owing allegiance to the United States, levies war against them or adheres to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort within the United States or elsewhere, is guilty of treason and shall suffer death, or shall be imprisoned not less than five years and fined under this title but not less than $10,000; and shall be incapable of holding any office under the United States. The Constitution’s requirement that a conviction for treason requires the supporting testimony of two witnesses comes from the British Treason Act 1695. Bribery is not defined in the Constitution. However, bribery has long been recognized in English and American common law as an act in which a person gives any official of the government money, gifts, or services to influence that official’s behavior in office. To date, no federal official has faced impeachment based on grounds of treason. While one federal judge was impeached and removed from the bench for advocating  in favor of succession and serving as a judge for the Confederacy during the Civil War, the impeachment was based on charges of refusing to hold court as sworn, rather than treason. Only two officials- both federal judges- have faced impeachment based on charges that specifically involved bribery or accepting gifts from litigants and both were removed from office. All of the other impeachment proceedings held against all federal officials to date have been based on charges of â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.† What are High Crimes and Misdemeanors? The term â€Å"high crimes† is often assumed to mean â€Å"felonies.† However, felonies are major crimes, while misdemeanors are less serious crimes. So under this interpretation, â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† would refer to any crime, which is not the case. Where Did the Term Come From? At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, the framers of the Constitution viewed impeachment to be an essential part of the system of separation of powers providing each of the three branches of government ways to check the powers of the other branches. Impeachment, they reasoned, would give the legislative branch one means of checking the power of the executive branch. Many of the framers considered Congress’ power to impeach federal judges to be of great importance since they would be appointed for life. However, some of the framers opposed providing for the impeachment of executive branch officials, because the power of the president could be checked every four years by the American people through the electoral process. In the end, James Madison of Virginia convinced a majority of the delegates that being able to replace a president only once every four years did not adequately check the powers of a president who became physically unable to serve or abused the executive powers. As Madison argued, â€Å"loss of capacity, or corruption . . . might be fatal to the republic† if the president could be replaced only through an election. The delegates then considered the grounds for impeachment. A select committee of delegates recommended â€Å"treason or bribery† as the only grounds. However, George Mason of Virginia, feeling that bribery and treason were only two of the many ways a president could willfully harm the republic, proposed adding â€Å"maladministration† to the list of impeachable offenses. James Madison argued that â€Å"maladministration† was so vague that it might allow Congress to remove presidents based purely on a political or ideological bias. This, argued Madison, would violate the separation of powers by giving the legislative branch total power over the executive branch. George Mason agreed with Madison and proposed â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors against the state.† In the end, the convention reached a compromise and adopted â€Å"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors† as it appears in the Constitution today. In the Federalist Papers, Alexander Hamilton explained the concept of impeachment to the people, defining impeachable offenses as â€Å"those offences which proceed from the misconduct of public men, or in other words from the abuse or violation of some public trust. They are of a nature which may with peculiar propriety be denominated political, as they relate chiefly to injuries done immediately to the society itself.† According to the History, Arts, and Archives of the House of Representatives, impeachment proceedings against federal officials have been initiated more than 60 times since the Constitution was ratified in 1792. Of those, fewer than 20 have resulted in actual impeachment and only eight – all federal judges – have been convicted by the Senate and removed from office. The â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† alleged to have been  committed by the impeached judges have included using their position for financial gain, showing overt favoritism to litigants, income tax evasion, the disclosure of confidential information, unlawfully charging people with contempt of court, filing false expense reports, and habitual drunkenness. To date, only three cases of impeachment have involved presidents: Andrew  Johnson in 1868, Richard Nixon in 1974, and Bill Clinton in 1998. While none of them were convicted in the Senate and removed from office through impeachment, their cases help reveal Congress’ likely interpretation of â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.† Andrew Johnson As the lone U.S. Senator from a Southern state to remain loyal to the Union during the Civil War, Andrew Johnson was chosen by President Abraham Lincoln to be his vice-presidential running mate in the 1864 election. Lincoln had believed Johnson, as vice president, would help in negotiating with the South. However, shortly after taking over the presidency due to  Lincoln’s assassination in 1865, Johnson, a Democrat, ran into trouble with the Republican-dominated Congress over the Reconstruction of the South. As fast as Congress passed Reconstruction legislation, Johnson would veto it. Just as quickly, Congress would override his veto. The growing political friction came to a head when Congress, over Johnson’s veto, passed the long ago repealed Tenure of Office Act, which required the president to get the approval  of Congress to fire any executive branch appointee that had been confirmed by Congress. Never one to back down to Congress, Johnson immediately fried Republican secretary of war, Edwin Stanton. Though Stanton’s firing clearly violated the Tenure of Office Act, Johnson simply stated that the considered the act to be unconstitutional. In response, the House passed 11 articles of impeachment against Johnson as follows: Eight for violations of the Tenure of Office Act;One for using improper channels to send orders to executive branch officers;One for conspiring against Congress by publicly stating that Congress did not truly represent the Southern states; andOne for failure to enforce various provisions of the Reconstruction Acts. The Senate, however, voted on only three of the charges, finding Johnson not guilty by a single vote in each case. While the charges against Johnson are considered to have been politically motivated and not worthy of impeachment today, they serve as an example of actions that have been interpreted as â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.† Richard Nixon Shortly after Republican President Richard Nixon had easily won re-election to a second term in 1972, it was revealed that during the election, persons with ties to the Nixon campaign had broken into the Democratic Party national headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. While it was never proven that Nixon had known about or ordered the Watergate burglary, the famed Watergate tapes – voice recordings of Oval Office conversations – would confirm that Nixon had personally attempted to obstruct the Justice Department’s Watergate investigation. On the tapes, Nixon is heard suggesting paying the burglars â€Å"hush money† and ordering the FBI and CIA to influence the investigation in his favor. On July 27, 1974, the House Judiciary Committee passed three articles of impeachment charging Nixon with obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress by his refusal to honor the committee’s requests to produce related documents. While never admitting having a role in either the burglary or the cover-up, Nixon resigned on August 8, 1974, before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment against him. â€Å"By taking this action,† he said in a televised address from the Oval Office, â€Å"I hope that I will have hastened the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America.† Nixon’s vice president and successor, President Gerald Ford eventually pardoned Nixon for any crimes he may have committed while in office. Interestingly, the Judiciary Committee had refused to vote on a proposed article of impeachment charging Nixon with tax evasion because the members did not consider it to be an impeachable offense. The committee based its opinion of a special House staff report titled, Constitutional Grounds for Presidential Impeachment, which concluded, â€Å"Not all presidential misconduct is sufficient to constitute grounds for impeachment. . . . Because impeachment of a President is a grave step for the nation, it is predicated only upon conduct seriously incompatible with either the constitutional form and principles of our government or the proper performance of constitutional duties of the presidential office.† Bill Clinton First elected in 1992, President Bill Clinton was reelected in 1996. Scandal in Clinton’s administration began during his first term when the Justice Department appointed an independent counsel to investigate the president’s involvement in â€Å"Whitewater,† a failed land development investment deal that had taken place in Arkansas some 20 years earlier.   The Whitewater investigation blossomed to include scandals including Clinton’s questionable firing of members of the White House travel office, referred to as â€Å"Travelgate,† the misuse of confidential FBI records, and of course, Clinton’s infamous illicit affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In 1998, a report to the House Judiciary Committee from Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr listed 11  potentially impeachable offenses, all related only to the Lewinsky scandal. The Judiciary Committee passed four articles of impeachment accusing Clinton of: Perjury in his testimony before a grand jury assembled by Starr;Providing â€Å"perjurious, false and misleading testimony† in a separate lawsuit related to the Lewinsky affair;Obstruction of justice in an attempt to â€Å"delay, impede, cover up and conceal the existence† of evidence; andAbuse and misuse of presidential powers by lying to the public, misinforming his cabinet and White House staff to gain their public support, wrongly claiming executive privilege, and refusing to respond to the committee’s questions. Legal and constitutional experts who testified at the Judiciary Committee hearing gave differing opinions of what â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† might be. Experts called by congressional Democrats testified that none of Clinton’s alleged acts amounted to â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† as envisioned by the framers of the Constitution. These experts cited Yale Law School professor Charles L. Black’s 1974 book, Impeachment: A Handbook, in which he argued that impeaching a president effectively overturns an election and thus the will of the people. As a result, Black reasoned, presidents should be impeached and removed from office only if proven guilty of â€Å"serious assaults on the integrity of the processes of government,† or for â€Å"such crimes as would so stain a president as to make his continuance in office dangerous to public order.† Black’s book cites two examples of acts that, while federal crimes, would not warrant the impeachment of a president: transporting a minor across state lines for â€Å"immoral purposes† and obstructing justice by helping a White House staff member conceal marijuana. On the other hand, experts called by congressional Republicans argued that in his acts related to the Lewinsky affair, President Clinton had violated his oath to uphold the laws and failed to faithfully carry out his duties as the government’s chief law enforcement officer. In the Senate trial, where 67 votes are required to remove an impeached official from office, only 50 Senators voted to remove Clinton on charges of obstruction of justice and only 45 Senators voted to remove him on the charge of perjury. Like Andrew Johnson a century before him, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate. Last Thoughts on ‘High Crimes and Misdemeanors’ In 1970, then-Representative Gerald Ford, who would become president after the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974, made a notable statement about the charges of â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† in impeachment. After several failed attempts to convince the House to impeach a liberal Supreme Court justice, Ford stated that â€Å"an impeachable offense is whatever a majority of the House of Representatives considers it to be at a given moment in history.† Ford reasoned that â€Å"there are few fixed principles among the handful of precedents.† According to constitutional lawyers, Ford was both right and wrong. He was right in the sense that the Constitution does give the House the exclusive power to initiate impeachment. The vote of the House to issue articles of impeachment cannot be challenged in the courts. However, the Constitution does not give Congress the power to remove officials from office due to political or ideological disagreements. In order to ensure the integrity of the separation of powers, the framers of the Constitution intended that Congress should use its impeachment powers only when executive officials had committed â€Å"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors† which substantially damaged the integrity and effectiveness of government.

Importance of Human Skin Pigmentations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Importance of Human Skin Pigmentations - Essay Example UVB is the short wave ultraviolet rays from the sun that are less dangerous than the short wavelength Ultraviolet rays known as the UVA. A UVB ray is absorbed at the surface of the skin and their intensity depends on the geographical area, time, and season. Vitamin D is responsible for absorption of calcium in our bodies for strong bones and teeth. Insufficient vitamin D causes brittle bones and rickets and people who have less exposure to the UVB rays from the sun must take vitamin D supplement. The skin is the largest organ and very important for the survival of human beings. Its protective nature to the other body organs and its pigmentation matters a lot in our health. Melanin is therefore very crucial for healthy individuals and where it lacks such as the people with albinism, medical attention is mandatory to prevent skin disorders and cancers. Skin pigmentation is very important in human bodies especially those living in hot regions such as the African continent. The main functions of melanin are the absorption of the ultraviolet rays from the sun that has a damaging effect by causing diseases such as the skin cancer. Light-skinned people have a problem in coping with the intense radiations from the sun as it causes a lot of damage to their skins. Inadequate melanin cannot absorb all the UVR rays from the sun especially when it is very hot leading to adverse effects such as premature aging, cancers, and vitamin D deficiency.

Money & Banking Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Money & Banking - Assignment Example It has been stated that the measurement problems occur especially during the business cycle contraction where the values are understated. Unemployment rate is understated due to a number of reasons. First off, underemployment is not regarded as unemployment, but is instead viewed as being employed. In tough economic times, job cuts are common in many organizations. Many people subsequently seek out jobs that do not utilize their full skill and knowledge potential (Horvitz 33). Though these jobs are temporary income earners to cater for the person’s daily need, the Bureau of Labor Statistics view these people as fully employed and does not count then against the national rate, leading to massive understatement. If a person who used to take home $140,000 each year has to take a job that offers $22,000, it is unfair to consider this person as employed (Horvitz 47). New entrants into the labor force are not considered unemployed. If for instance, a stay at home mum seeks out employment due to harsh economic times and fails to get employed, she will not get counted as unemployed by the authorities. There exist people under the age of sixteen who have taken up jobs to assist their families. Since they are below the age of 16, they are not counted as employed and if they fail to find work, they do not count as unemployed either. This adds up to massive understatement of the unemployment rate. The Bureau of Labor Statistics only considers one unemployed if you are actively involved in job hunting. Individuals who are jobless and are no longer searching for work are not counted as unemployed. They are therefore not included in the unemployment values rolled out every month, a phenomenon that without a doubt leads to understatement by massive margins (Horvitz 77). Some workers have had to involuntarily take up job sharing, working less hour shifts